23 March 2017, Volume 44 Issue 2
    

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    PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
  • ZHAO Xianzheng, PU Xiugang, ZHOU Lihong, SHI Zhannan, HAN Wenzhong, ZHANG Wei
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 165-176. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.01
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    Based on seismic, logging, formation testing, core and lab test data, this study analyzed the sequence division, facies features of deep water deposits and modes, development of large-scale gravity flow, reservoir physical properties and their main controlling factors, and proposed a classification standard and prediction method of favorable exploration areas in deep water area of the Bin1 oil layers of the lower sub-member of the first member of Paleogene Shahejie Formation in Banqiao-Qibei slope zone of Qikou sag, Bohai Bay Basin. The Bin1 oil layers can be divided into three fifth-order sequences, each less than 100 m thick; a set of gravity flow deposits were formed under deep water background in the slope zone, which contains sedimentary micro-facies such as main channel, distributary channel, channel margin, inter-channel mudstone, and turbidite sand sheet in areas without channels, and, in space, has inherited and constructive development features of multistages. It is a sedimentary sequence of fan delta - distal subaqueous fan - deep lake, and every distal subaqueous fan formed by gravity flow can be divided into inner-, middle- and outer fans. The cross-facies transported sands which are sourced from higher-sand-content major sands of delta front can form high quality reservoirs with an average porosity of 15.1% and geometric average permeability of 5.1×10-3 μm2. The main channel and distributary channel of distal subaqueous fan are the most favorable exploration zones.
  • SHANMUGAM G
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 177-195. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.02
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    The purpose of this critical review is to address fundamental principles associated with contourites and other bottom-current deposits. The four basic types of deep-marine bottom currents are: (1) thermohaline-induced geostrophic contour currents, (2) wind-driven bottom currents, (3) tide-driven bottom currents, mostly in submarine canyons, and (4) internal wave/tide-driven baroclinic currents. Contourites are deposits of thermohaline-driven geostrophic contour currents. Contourites can be muddy or sandy in texture, siliciclastic or calciclastic in composition. Traction structures are common in deposits of all four types of bottom currents. However, there are no diagnostic sedimentological or seismic criteria for distinguishing ancient contourites from other three types. The Gulf of Cadiz is the type locality for the contourite facie model based on muddy lithofacies. However, this site is affected not only by contour currents associated with the Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW) but also by other factors, such as internal waves and tides, turbidity currents, tsunamis, cyclones, mud volcanism, methane seepage, sediment supply, porewater venting, and bottom topography. IODP (Integrated Ocean Drilling Program) 339 cores from the Gulf of Cadiz do not show primary sedimentary structures, which are necessary for interpreting depositional processes. Therefore, the contourite facies model is sedimentologically obsolete. Bottom-current reworked sands of all four types have the potential for developing petroleum reservoirs. Modern sandy carbonate contourites have a measured maximum porosity of 40% and a maximum permeability of 9 881×10 -3 μm2 due to the winnowing away of muds from the intergranular primary pores by vigorous contour currents. These carbonate contourites are hemiconical-shaped bodies that are up to 600 m in thickness and nearly 60 km in length. Empirical data of modern contourites also show potential for seal and source-rock development. Therefore, future petroleum exploration and development should focus attention on these often overlooked siliciclastic and calciclastic deep-marine reservoirs.
  • LIU Zhanguo, ZHU Chao, LI Senming, XUE Jianqin, GONG Qingshun, WANG Yanqing, WANG Peng, XIA Zhiyuan, SONG Guangyong
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 196-204. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.03
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    Using a large amount of drilling and experimental analysis data, this paper evaluates four potential fields of tight oil exploration in western Qaidam Basin from comprehensive analysis of geological conditions such as sedimentary environments, source rock evaluations, reservoir characteristics, and source-reservoir relationships. Influenced by continuous uplift of Tibet Plateau since Paleogene, the sedimentary environment of the western Qaidam Basin exibits three characteristics: (1) a paleo-topographic configuration consisted of inherited slopes, depressions and paleohighs; (2) frequent alternation of relative humid and arid paleoclimate; and (3) oscillation of salinity and level of the paleo-lake water. Preferential paleo-environment resulted in two sets of large-scale source rocks with high efficiency and two types of large-scale tight reservoir rocks (siliclastic and carbonate), deposited during the late Paleogene to early Neogene. The above source and reservoir rocks form favorable spatial relationships which can be classified into three categories: symbiotic, inter and lateral. Based on sedimentary environments and reservoir types, tight oil resource in western Qaidam Basin can be divided into four types, corresponding to four exploration fields: salty lacustrine carbonate tight oil, shallow lake beach-bar sandstone tight oil, delta-front-sandstone tight oil and deep lake gravity-flow-sandstone tight oil. The temporal and spatial distribution of tight oil has characteristics of layer concentration, strong regularity and large favorable area, in which the saline lacustrine carbonate and shallow lake beach-bar sandstone tight oil are the best exploration targets in the western Qaidam Basin.
  • ZHANG Leifu, WANG Hongliang, LI Yinglie, PAN Mao
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 205-212. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.04
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    Taking turbidity lobe deposits as an example, the types and formation mechanisms of sandstone amalgamation were discussed, the indications of sandstone amalgamations to sedimentary environment and stacking pattern of sand bodies were investigated, and “amalgamation ratio” was employed to quantitatively describe the degree of sandstone amalgamation. Sandstone amalgamation is a common sedimentological phenomenon in sand/mud dominated clastic deposits, which generally consists of two processes: erosion of inter-sand mudstone barriers and amalgamation of sandstone beds which were previously separated by the mudstone barriers. Statistics analysis suggests that amalgamation ratio varies greatly in different hierarchical levels of structures. Based on these analyses, three sets of conceptual lobe 3D models with identical NTG (net to gross ratio) and bed sizes but different hierarchies and different amalgamation ratio using an object-based modeling approach. Static connectivity analysis of these models suggests that the more the hierarchical levels, the worse connectivity the model has; for models with identical hierarchical settings, the higher the amalgamation ratio, the better the connectivity.
  • TIAN Zepu, SONG Xinmin, WANG Yongjun, RAN Qiquan, LIU Bo, XU Qilu, LI Yang
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 213-224. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.05
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    To improve the prediction accuracy of sweet spots in tight reservoirs, the Da’anzhai Member limestone in Jurassic Ziliujing Formation, central Sichuan Basin was subdivided based on the relationship between characteristics of matrix pores and fractures and rock fabric, and the physical properties and oiliness of every type and the effect of different rock types on the natural productivity were discussed. The limestone reservoir has plenty, multi-type nano- to micro-meter micropores or microfractures. Bioclastics which mainly are bivalve shells, calcite or dolomite crystalline grains and silicate minerals are the three endmembers affecting the development of micropores or microfractures in the limestones. According to this, the limestone in Da’anzhai Member is subdivided into 10 different types, each with unique sedimentary and diagenetic history, and pore and fracture features. The study results show that siliceous bivalve packstone and clay bivalve packstone have better storage property; bivalve-clastic grainstone and bivalve mudstone have higher permeability; clay bivalve packstone has higher oil content; and siliceous shell packstone, dolomitic shell packstone and argillaceous shell packstone can increase the supply ability of reservoirs. Lithologic difference results in different pore-fracture and physical properties, which are the main reason of the different single well productivity in the Da’anzhai Member.
  • MA Zhongzhen, CHEN Heping, XIE Yinfu, ZHANG Zhiwei, LIU Yaming, YANG Xiaofa, ZHOU Yubing, WANG Dandan
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 225-234. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.06
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    Based on the latest seismic, logging and reservoir reserve data, through hydrocarbon accumulation elements analysis, the play of Putomayo-Oriente-Maranon (POM) basin, South America is divided. The POM basin was divided into 9 plays, and the undiscovered petroleum resources of these plays are estimated as 11.0×108t by using subjective probability method and scale sequential method; and the total undiscovered petroleum resources of the Hollin sandstone play, Napo T member sandstone play, Napo U member sandstone play and Napo M1 member sandstone play are 10.4×108t (accounting for 94% of the whole basin). Based on hydrocarbon accumulation factors analysis, including source rock, reservoir, trap, migration, seal and preservation, the plays have been evaluated and ranked by using double factors method of resources-geological risks, including four class I plays, two class II and three class III plays. Favorable exploration areas have been optimized by using "plays area overlaying" method: the central part of the basin is the class I favorable area.
  • LIU Mingjie, LIU Zhen, WU Yaowen, ZHU Wenqi, WANG Peng
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 235-242. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.07
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    The tight sands reservoirs in the Lower Cretaceous Denglouku Formation in Changling Fault Depression of Songliao Basin, NE China were taken as study object. The burial history, thermal evolution history and hydrocarbon generation history of source rock, accumulation stage and porosity evolution history of typical tight sandstone reservoirs in the central deep depression belt, east slope belt and east structural belt were examined by the dissection based on the fundamental features of tight sandstone gas reservoirs, to find out the differences in their formation process, the coupling relationship between source and reservoir of different substructures, then the favorable exploration areas can be confirmed. The east structural belt has the best source rocks and reservoirs, where the Denglouku Formation tight sandstone formed reservoirs earliest when the reservoirs were not tightened yet with features of one stage accumulation. The sandstone of the Denglouku Formation in the east slope belt formed reservoirs secondly and shows one stage accumulation but two charging peaks, the first charging peak occurred when the reservoirs were not tightened, the second charging peak occurred when the sandstone was tightened already. The sandstone of the Denglouku Formation in central deep depression belt formed reservoir the latest when the reservoirs were densified already with the features of one stage accumulation. The study shows that the east structural belt has the best coupling relationship between source rocks and reservoirs, and is the most favorable exploration area for tight gas in the Changling Fault Depression.
  • WANG Daxing, ZHANG Mengbo, YANG Wenjing, CAI Kehan, GAO Lidong, ZHU Jun
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 243-251. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.08
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    To find out the seismic wave field propagation principles in loess plateau near surface of the Ordos Basin and the seismic response characteristics of tight oil reservoirs, this study established a geological-geophysical model under the real conditions of ground surface of loess plateau, and launched full elastic seismic wave equation forward modeling and pre-stack elastic seismic inversion study. Comparison of modeling and real seismic data shows that, the loose and wavy loess plateau surface is the main reason for causing the problems of seismic static correction and interference wave. Tomographic static correction method with the constraint of traces near shot point can effectively solve the problem of seismic static correction in the loess plateau and enhance seismic interpretation accuracy, S-wave impedance obtained from pre-stack seismic inversion can identify sandstone effectively, and Poisson's ratio can identify oil-bearing reservoirs. The seismic forward and inverse simulation and rock physical analysis provide a solid theoretical and experimental basis for the seismic prediction of tight oil reservoir, and have worked well in the oil exploration and development in the loess plateau of the Ordos Basin.
  • FENG Cheng, SHI Yujiang, HAO Jianfei, WANG Zhenlin, MAO Zhiqiang, LI Gaoren, JIANG Zhihao
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 252-257. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.09
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    The nuclear magnetic resonance T2 spectra of low-permeability reservoirs with complex wettability were studied using the samples from the Chang 8 Member, Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation, Ordos Basin, China. Abnormal high resistivity and normal resistivity core samples were selected. T2 spectra under different wettability and water saturation conditions, contact angles and Amott wettability indexes were designed and tested. The test results show that under fully brine-saturated condition, the T2 spectra of normal resistivity core samples reflect surface relaxation of water, while the samples with abnormal high resistivity exhibit wide unimodal T2 spectrum, consisting of both surface and volume relaxation of water, which indicates that these cores are not fully water-wet after oil washing. In the process of oil displacing water, the T2 spectra of normal resistivity core samples present bimodal feature, and those of abnormal high resistivity core samples (both un-aged and aged) mainly show the same unimodal feature as those measured under fully brine-saturated condition. Based on these results, it can be inferred that the wettability change of abnormal high resistivity core samples to oil-wet has basically completed during oil displacing water process, and the ageing process has little effect on the wettability of abnormal high resistivity core samples. In the process of water displacing oil to residual oil, the T2 spectra of abnormal high resistivity core samples generally show trimodal feature, among which, the shortest relaxation time spectrum peaks coincide with that under irreducible water saturation condition, the moderate ones reflect surface and volume relaxation of residual oil, and the longest ones reflect surface and volume relaxation of water in large pores.
  • OIL AND GAS FIELD DEVELOPMENT
  • ZHANG Hui, WANG Lei, WANG Xinguang, ZHOU Wei, ZENG Xiaoming, LIU Changwei, ZHAO Nan, WANG Laichao, WANG Xinbin, WANG Wentao
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 258-262. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.10
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    A productivity analysis for gas-water wells in abnormal overpressure gas reservoirs, considering seepage capability changes of gas-water two phases, elastic drive energy of reservoir and fluid, physical property changes caused by stress sensitivity of reservoir etc, is proposed, and the influences of various factors on gas production rate are analyzed by practical examples. Based on generalized Darcy formula and the law of conservation of mass, mathematical models of steady-state and unsteady-state seepage considering stress sensitivity of reservoirs and seepage capability changes of gas-water two phases are established, then, corresponding formulas of gas production rate are deduced. Results of practical example analysis show that: the increase of reservoir water content causes decrease of seepage capability of gas phase, and thus declining the gas production rate, so the influence of seepage capability changes of gas-water two phases on gas production rate cannot be ignored in the process of productivity evaluation for gas-water wells; gas production rate has smaller variations with the increase of stress sensitivity when production pressure drop is small, while gas production rate decreases significantly with the increase of stress sensitivity when production pressure drop is large. Therefore, the production pressure drop of gas wells at the beginning of the development should not be too high for gas reservoirs with high stress sensitivity.
  • XIE Xiaoqing, ZHAO Hui, KANG Xiaodong, ZHANG Xiansong, XIE Pengfei
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 263-269. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.11
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    To forecast some key parameters of produced liquid containing polymer, including the time of polymer output, polymer concentration, a polymer concentration prediction method based on interwell connectivity methodology was established, its prediction results were compared with those from numerical simulation software, and it has been used in a case study. On the basis of water flooding interwell connectivity model, a polymer flooding production performance prediction model considering the viscosity, concentration, adsorption and water-phase permeability reduction factor of polymer was built. Compared with the traditional numerical simulation, the pressure equations in this model have lower dimension, and it inverses the interwell conductivity and connected volume through automatic history matching, enhancing calculation speed and precision significantly. The calculation model was used to the history matching of a homogeous reservoir model with 1 injector and 4 producers, and the comparison of its results and the results from numerical simulation software shows the model is reliable and accurate. Moreover, sensitivity analysis of major model parameters reveals that the increase of water-phase permeability reduction factor, injected polymer concentration and pore volume injected and early polymer injection time can improve oil recovery. The real reservoir application shows the model can predict the change of produced polymer concentration of different development schemes accurately.
  • DI Qinfeng, ZHANG Jingnan, HUA Shuai, CHEN Huijuan, GU Chunyuan
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 270-274. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.12
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    The distribution characteristics and migration pattern of weak gel in the core were observed by combining nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging technology with the core displacement experiment, and the oil displacement features of different polymer-weak gel combinations were examined with visualization experiments. Three combination patterns of polymer and weak gel were designed: waterflooding+ polymer flooding (pattern 1), waterflooding + polymer flooding + weak gel flooding (pattern 2), and waterflooding + weak gel flooding + polymer flooding (pattern 3). The pressure variations, T2 spectra, nuclear magnetic resonance images, oil displacement efficiencies under the different patterns were analyzed. The results show that the nuclear magnetic images can not only provide the direct information of weak gel distribution and migration characteristics inside the core, but also reflect the distribution characteristics of remaining oil; the T2 spectrum characteristics indicate that both polymer and weak gel have the function of profile control and oil displacement, and the pattern 2 has the best profile control effect; of the three patterns, pattern 2 has the highest oil displacement efficiency of 78.84%, which is 18.33% higher than the displacement efficiency of water flooding in the initial stage.
  • PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
  • LIU Xiushan
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 275-280. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.13
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    In view of the problems existing in the current wellbore positioning method, a true three-dimensional wellbore positioning method was presented, and an example for analysis was given. The current positioning method uses the grid north as the reference datum to the north, positions in the horizontal plane based on the map projection coordinates, and positions in the vertical direction based on the elevation coordinates. It has inherent defects and errors, as the two positionings above are independent of each other, and only use the constant meridian convergence and constant magnetic declination at the wellhead to calculate the borehole trajectory for the whole well. Based on the earth ellipsoid and its calculating principle, the transformation relationship between the wellhead coordinate system, geodetic coordinate system and elevation coordinate system was revealed, and the true three-dimensional wellbore positioning method using the true north as the reference datum to the north was presented. Analysis results of an example show that the current positioning method yields a smaller vertical depth and a larger horizontal displacement for the target, and produces larger errors compared with the true three-dimensional positioning method. The true three-dimensional positioning method has fundamentally solved the problems existing in the current positioning method, accurately positioning the relative location between the target and the wellhead, and significantly improves the accuracy and reliability of borehole trajectory design.
  • BAO Jinqing, LIU He, ZHANG Guangming, JIN Juan, CHENG Wei, LIU Jiandong
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 281-288. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.14
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    Completely taking into account the interferences between fractures as well as the friction effects on injection allocations, a fully coupled finite element method inherited from a verified one is proposed to discuss fracture propagation laws and analyze their impacts on fracture conductivities. Simulations show that although fractures have similar injection allocations that fluctuate around the allocation averaged by fractures, interferences between them lead to their different propagation rates and some fractures even stop propagating for a while. Shorter fractures generally have higher pressure and smaller pressure gradients than longer ones. The pressure differences between fractures result in long fractures having bottlenecking zones far away from the wellbore, and make them vulnerable to screen-out at the inlets and the bottlenecking zones. The effects of the propagation laws on fracture conductivities include: (1) the conductivities in short fractures are weakened by rapid proppant settlement in them; (2) long fractures may lost their conductivities due to screen-out near the wellbore; (3) the conductivities in long fractures decrease because of screen-out at the bottlenecking zones.
  • MEN Xiangyong, YAN Xia, CHEN Yongchang, LI Zhongbai
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 289-294. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.15
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    On the basis of the previous development of cumulative gas flow meter, a set of integrated coalbed methane (CBM) well production test instrument is developed and applied in field to solve the problem of gas-water phase flow production stratified logging test. This instrument uses a cumulative gas flow meter to test stratified gas production, which can be flexibly converted into a capacitive water holdup meter underground to obtain water holdup. Fluid flow rate can be measured by the converted capacitive water holdup meter combined with a gamma tracer flow meter, and hence stratified water production can be calculated. The instrument meets the gas and water production synchronous measurement and integrated miniaturization. A dynamic seal pressure balancing technology is applied to solve the unbalance between internal and external forces of pressure cylinder when down-hole piston is open in the well. The use of novel releasable guide cone to replace the squirrel cage guide cone effectively solved the difficult problem of the instrument entering the CBM well. With a diameter of only 22 mm, the instrument can be run in to the annulus through an eccentric wellhead. In field test the gas and water production of different layers can be obtained using declining method by placing the instrument at different coal seams, to evaluate gas and water production of different layers in commingle production CBM wells. Field application shows that the instrument has the advantages of small size, high measuring precision, short measuring time, and no disruption on well production, etc., and exhibits a broad application prospect in CBM development.
  • ZHENG Lichen, YU Jiaqing, YANG Qinghai, GAO Yang, SUN Fuchao
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 295-300. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.16
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    To overcome the disadvantages of traditional downhole communication methods, a vibration wave downhole communication technique is proposed, and a vibration wave downhole communication system is developed. This technique has been verified by field test and is applied to separated layer water injection. It is shown by theoretical and test research that transmission of the vibration wave through tubing and casing appears as the alternate distribution of pass-band and stop-band. According to that, a multi-baseband transmission strategy is formulated. The on-off keying modulation and Manchester encoding scheme are used to load the control information into the vibration wave. A generation system of vibration signals is developed to realize the controllable conversion from electric energy into vibration wave energy. A receiving and decoding system of vibration waves, which uses a micro-vibration acceleration sensor as the signal pickup element, is developed too. A test system for vibration wave downhole remote transmission is designed and applied to field test. The feasibility of the technique and the accuracy and reliability of communication system are verified and the attenuation characteristics of casing vibration wave signals are obtained. This technique has been applied to separated layer water injection successfully with wide application prospect in wellbore control field.
  • COMPREHENSIVE RESEARCH
  • KANG Yili, YANG Bin, LI Xiangchen, YANG Jian, YOU Lijun, CHEN Qiang
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 301-308. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.17
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    Shales (illite was the dominant clay mineral) of Silurian Longmaxi Formation in Sichuan Basin and Triassic Yanchang Formation in Ordos Basin were taken as subjects to examine the mechanisms of shale-water interaction, quantitative characterization of hydration force and potential field applications based on micro forces analyses. Mica sheet with composition and property very similar to illite was tested for micro forces between the crystal layers. In electrolyte solution, micro forces between mica-solution-mica system include DLVO (Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek) force and hydration force; when the electrolyte concentration was low, the tested curve agreed with the theoretical DLVO curve; when the electrolyte concentration was higher than the critical value and the distance between mica sheets was less than 5 nm, the tested curve deviated from the DLVO curve completely, and the hydration force became dominant. Quantitative analysis indicated that the hydration force decayed in a rapid double-exponential type with the growth of distance. Field applications indicate that strict control of water invasion and reducing the strength of hydration force are the keys in designing collapse-preventing drilling fluids; meanwhile, during the shut-in period of shale gas wells, shale-water interaction can induce and extend micro-cracks, further improving the stimulation effect of shale reservoirs.
  • ACADEMIC DISCUSSION
  • OU Chenghua, LI Chaochun
    Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2017, 44(2): 309-318. https://doi.org/10.11698/PED.2017.02.18
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    Taking the Upper Ordovician Wufeng-Lower Silurian Longmaxi shale gas field in the Jiaoshiba area in Sichuan Basin as an example, 3D discrete network modeling of shale bedding fractures based on lithofaices characterization was studied. The development of shale bedding fractures are controlled by shale lithofacies and shale bedding fractures in different lithofacies vary widely in development intensity, so this study developed a new methodology of 3D discrete network modeling of shale bedding fractures based on lithofaices characterization. This methodology constructs modes of shale lithofaices and shale bedding fractures by analyzing shale reservoir lithofacies and describing shale bedding fractures; builds shale bedding fracture index 3D model relying on 3D shale lithofaices model; builds development intensity 3D model of shale bedding fracture limited by 3D shale lithofaices model; and finally, builds 3D discrete network model. This methodology has been used to construct the 3D discrete network model of shale bedding fractures of Wufeng-Longmaxi shale reservoirs in Jiaoshiba area. The modeling results visualized the distribution, development scale of shale bedding fractures in main production layers in the study area and showed the variation of dip angle and azimuthal angle of each shale bedding fracture in the three-dimensional space, providing basic geological parameters for production simulation of the shale gas field later.